Monday, October 3, 2011
Friday, June 24, 2011
Baloch sarmachar
Monday, April 25, 2011
government in 1959, he became a symbol
of the Baloch independence movement. Early years Little is known about Nowroz Khan's
early
years.
He was born some time in the
1870s or 1880s (sources disagree on the
date) at a time when Kalat was a princely state within the framework of the British Raj. By 1887 the British had reached a settlement with Kalat agreeing on
limited autonomy in exchange for British
authority in military affairs and external
relationships, but the country remained
instable, with periodic fighting against
the authorities or between tribal groups. Nauroz Khan became Nawab and leader
of the Zehri tribe in the Jhalawan area of Kalat at a time before the introduction of
electricity or motor vehicles, head of a
largely nomadic people in a harsh
mountain / desert environment, but with
a rich tradition of Baluchi, Persian and
Muslim culture. The First and Second World Wars were distant events in this
world, but the creation of the state of
Pakistan in 1947 was disruptive. Background to revolt In 1955 the various states of Balochistan
were dissolved and merged into the
province of West Pakistan under the "One Unit" policy. In 1958 the Khan of the largest state, Kalat, Ahmad Yar Khan
organized a rebellion to secede from
West Pakistan. The Pakistan army took
control of the Kalat palace and arrested
the Khan for sedition on October 6, 1958.
The next day, the president Iskandar Mirza declared martial law. This led to disturbances in parts of Balochistan that lasted for about a year.
[1] Nawab Nowroz Khan was one of the leaders. Rebellion and imprisonment Nowroz Khan's band of fighters, which
may have numbered as many as 1,000 at
times, was involved in several sharp
skirmishes with forces led by Lt. Col. Tikka Khan . Nowroz agreed to surrender on May 15, 1959 in exchange for amnesty and
settlement of the Baluchi grievances.
Tikka Khan was said to have agreed to
the terms of the surrender through an
oath on the Quran. However, when Nowroz Khan came down from the hills,
he and about 150 of his followers,
including his sons and nephews, were
arrested for armed rebellion against the
state. On July 15, 1960 five of the leaders
were executed by hanging in Hyderabad Jail. Nowroz was spared execution on
account of his age, but died in Kohlu Jail in 1964. they are fighting for baloch
independence The Khan of Kalat was subsequently forgiven and freed.
The great legend
Saturday, March 26, 2011
history of emperor genghis khan
Genghis Khan (disambiguation) . Genghis Khan Khagan of the Mongol Empire Reign 1206– 1227 Coronation spring[1] 1206 in khurultai at the Onon River, Mongolia Full name Genghis Khan
(birth name: Borjigin Temüjin) Mongolian script ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ. Titles Khan , Khagan Temple name: Taizu (太祖) Posthumous name: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu
(法天啟運聖武皇帝) Born c. 1162 Birthplace Khentii Mountains , Mongolia Died 1227 (aged 65) Successor Ögedei Khan Consort Börte Ujin
Khulan
Yisugen
Yisui others Offspring Jochi
Chagatai
Ögedei
Tolui others Royal
House Borjigin Father Yesükhei Mother Ho'elun Genghis Khan (pronounced /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn / or /ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn /;[2] Mongolian: Чингис Хаан or ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ, Chinggis Khaan, or Činggis Qaγan, aka Chengiz Khan), IPA: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ]( listen); probably [3] 1162– 1227), born Borjigin Temüjin pronunciation (help·info ), was the founder, Khan (ruler) and Khagan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia . After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started
the Mongol invasions that would ultimately result in the conquest of most
of Eurasia. These included raids or
invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate , Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire , Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale
massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia . By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a
substantial portion of Central Asia and China. Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.[4] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried
in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His
descendants went on to stretch the
Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering and/or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea , the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-
scale slaughter of local populations, which
have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories. [5] It has been estimated that his campaigns
killed as many as 40 million people based on census data of the times. [6] Beyond his great military
accomplishments, Genghis Khan also
advanced the Mongol Empire in other
ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted
religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire,
and created a unified empire from the
nomadic tribes of northeast Asia.
Present-day Mongolians regard him highly as the founding father of Mongolia.[7] Early life Lineage Main article: Family tree of Genghis Khan Temüjin was related on his father's side
to Khabul Khan , Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation . When the Chinese Jin Dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan. [8] Genghis's father, Yesügei (leader of the Borjigin and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula
Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling
clan of the Mongols, but this position was
contested by the rival Tayichi’ ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai . When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161,
the Jin switched their support from the
Tatars to the Keraits . Birth The Onon River, Mongolia in autumn, a region where Borjigin Temüjin was born and grew up. Because of the lack of contemporary
written records, there is very little factual
information about the early life of
Temüjin. The few sources that provide
insight into this period often conflict. Temüjin was born in 1162[3] in a Mongol tribe near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern- day Mongolia, not far from the current capital Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist,
a traditional sign that he was destined to
become a great leader. He was the third-
oldest son of his father Yesükhei , a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe,[9] and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun. According to the Secret History, Temüjin was named
after a Tatar chieftain whom his father had just captured. The name also
suggests that they may have been
descended from a family of blacksmiths
(see section Name and title below). Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut , the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe.[10][11] Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors,
Temüjin was of a noble background. This
higher social standing made it easier to
solicit help from and eventually
consolidate the other Mongol tribes.[citation needed] No accurate portraits of Genghis exist
today, and any surviving depictions are
considered to be artistic interpretations.
Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall,
long-bearded, red-haired, and green-
eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the
first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan , when Genghis was shocked to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair. [12] Also according to al-Din Genghis's Borjigid
clan, had a legend involving their origins:
it began as the result of an affair
between Alan-ko and a stranger to her
land, a glittering man who happened to
have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has
suggested in his Genghis biography that
the "glittering man" may have been from
the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics.
Controversies aside, the closest depiction
generally accepted by most historians is
the portrait currently in the National
Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan (see picture above).[citation needed] Early life and family Temüjin had three brothers named
Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen (or
Temülin), as well as two half-brothers
named Bekhter and Belgutei. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temüjin's
early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years old, he was delivered by his father
to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei
Sechen, the head of the new household,
until he reached the marriageable age of 12. While heading home, his father ran
into the neighbouring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he
was subsequently poisoned by the food
they offered. Upon learning this, Temüjin
returned home to claim his father's
position as chieftain of the tribe;
however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection. Genghis Khan and Ong Khan . Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript For the next several years, Hoelun and her
children lived in poverty, surviving
primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temüjin and his brothers. It was during
one hunting excursion that 10-year-old
Temüjin killed his half-brother, Bekhter , during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.[13] This incident cemented his position as a
prisoner for manslaughter. In another
incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid
and held prisoner by his father's former
allies, the Tayichi'ud. The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temüjin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic watcher, the father of Chilaun (who would later become a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to
escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.[citation needed] It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined
forces with him. Temüjin's reputation
also became widespread after his escape
from the Tayichi'ud. At this time, none of the tribal
confederations of Mongolia were united
politically, and arranged marriages were
often used to solidify temporary alliances.
Temujin grew up observing the tough
political climate of Mongolia, which includes tribal warfare, thievery, raids,
corruption and continuing acts of revenge
carried out between the various
confederations, all compounded by
interference from foreign forces such as
the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temüjin's mother Hoelun taught him
many lessons about the unstable political
climate of Mongolia, especially the need
for alliances. As previously arranged by his father,
Temüjin married Börte of the Olkut'hun tribe when he was around 16 in order to
cement alliances between their
respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185– 1226), Chagatai (1187— 1241), Ögedei (1189— 1241), and Tolui (1190– 1232). Genghis Khan also had many other
children with his other wives, but they
were excluded from the succession, and
records of daughters are nonexistent.
Soon after Börte's marriage to Temüjin,
she was kidnapped by the Merkits , and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin
rescued her with the help of his friend
and future rival, Jamuka , and his protector, Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his
parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi,
Börte would be his only empress, though
Temüjin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.[14] Temujin valued loyalty above all else and also valued brotherhood.[15] Jumuka was one of Temujin's best friends growing up.
But their friendship would be tested later
in life, when Temujin was fighting to
become a khan. Jumuka said this to
Temujin before he was killed, "What use
is there in my becoming a companion to you? On the contrary, sworn brother, in
the black night I would haunt your
dreams, in the bright day I would trouble
your heart. I would be the louse in your
collar, I would become the splinter in your
door-panel...as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord." [16] Religion Genghis Khan's religion is widely
speculated to be Shamanism or Tengriism, which was very likely among nomadic Mongol-Turkic tribes of Central Asia. But he was very tolerant religiously,
and interested in learning philosophical
and moral lessons from other religions. To
do so, he consulted Buddhist monks, Christian missionaries, Muslim merchants, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji. Uniting the confederations Asia in 1200 AD The Central Asian plateau (north of China) around the time of Temüjin (the early
13th century) was divided into several
tribes or confederations , among them Naimans, Merkits , Uyghurs, Tatars, Mongols, and Keraits , that were all prominent in their own right and often
unfriendly toward each other as
evidenced by random raids, revenges, and
plundering. Temüjin began his slow ascent to power
by offering himself as an ally (or,
according to others sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Kerait , and is better known by the Chinese title Ong Khan (or " Wang Khan "), which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This relationship was first
reinforced when Börte was captured by
the Merkits; it was Toghrul to whom
Temüjin turned for support. In response,
Toghrul offered his vassal 20,000 of his
Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamuka,
who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.[17] Although the campaign was successful and led to
the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of
the Merkits, it also paved the way for the
split between the childhood friends,
Temüjin and Jamuka. Temüjin had
become blood brother (anda) with Jamuka earlier, and they had vowed to remain eternally faithful. The main opponents of the Mongol
confederation (traditionally the
"Mongols") around 1200 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, and the Jin and Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin, his followers, and their advisors, had
united the smaller Mongol confederation
only. In his rule and his conquest of rival
tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol
tradition in a few crucial ways. He
delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an
incentive for absolute obedience and
following his rule of law, the Yassa code, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers
wealth from future possible war spoils. As
he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive
away enemy soldiers and abandon the
rest. Instead, he took the conquered tribe
under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would
even have his mother adopt orphans from
the conquered tribe, bringing them into
his family. These political innovations
inspired great loyalty among the
conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory.[18] Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son Senggum was
jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and
his affinity with his father. He allegedly
planned to assassinate Temüjin. Toghrul,
though allegedly saved on multiple
occasions by Temüjin, gave in to his son [19] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's
intentions and eventually defeated him
and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures
between Toghrul and Temüjin was
Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in
marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the
Mongolian culture. This act led to the split
between both factions, and was a prelude
to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka , who already opposed Temüjin's forces; however the internal dispute
between Toghrul and Jamuka, plus the
desertion of a number of their allies to
Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuka
escaped during the conflict. This defeat
was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe. Genghis Khan in traditional
Mongolian
writing The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamuka and his followers took refuge . The Naimans did not surrender, although
enough sectors again voluntarily sided
with Temüjin. In 1201, a kurultai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan , "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate . Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin,
and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes
to oppose him. Before the conflict,
however, several generals abandoned
Jamuka, including Subutai, Jelme's well- known younger brother. After several
battles, Jamuka was finally turned over to
Temüjin by his own men in 1206. According to the Secret History, Temüjin
again offered his friendship to Jamuka,
asking him to return to his side. Temüjin
had killed the men who betrayed Jamuka,
stating that he did not want disloyal men
in his army. Jamuka refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there
can only be one Sun in the sky, and he
asked for a noble death. The custom is to
die without spilling blood, which is
granted by breaking the back. Jamuka
requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamuka had been
known to have boiled his opponent's
generals alive. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, who is now a member of Temüjin's personal guard and
would later become one of the successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the
sole ruler of the Mongol plains, which
means all the prominent confederations
fell and/or united under Temüjin's Mongol
confederation. Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are
marked by claims of a series of betrayals
and conspiracies. These include rifts with
his early allies such as Jamuka (who also
wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and
Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most
important Shaman who was allegedly trying to break him up with brother Qasar
who was serving Genghis Khan loyally. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy
network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting
new technologies and ideas that he
encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed
to unite or subdue the Merkits , Naimans, Mongols, Keraits , Tatars, Uyghurs and disparate other smaller tribes under his
rule. It was a monumental feat for the
"Mongols" (as they became known
collectively). At a Kurultai , a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as
"Khan " of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his
son and successor, Ögedei took the title
for himself and extended it posthumously
to his father (as he was also to be
posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan
established peace between previously
warring tribes and a single political and
military force under Genghis Khan. Military campaigns All significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals during his lifetime Western Xia Dynasty During the 1206 political rise of Genghis
Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its
western borders with the Tanguts' Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin Dynasty , founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlord of the Mongolian tribes for
centuries. Genghis Khan organized his people, army,
and his state to first prepare for war with
Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer
to the Mongolian lands. He correctly
believed that the more powerful Jin
Dynasty's young ruler would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts
requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were flatly refused. [19] Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended
cities, Genghis Khan forced the surrender
of Western Xia by 1209. Jin Dynasty Main article: Mongol-Jin War In 1211, after the conquest of Western
Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to
conquer the Jin Dynasty . The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical
mistake in not attacking the Mongols at
the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin
commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan,
to the Mongol side, who promptly
defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the
pass. At this engagement fought at
Badger Pass the Mongols massacred
thousands of Jin troops. In 1215 Genghis
besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin
capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng , abandoning the northern half of his kingdom to the Mongols. Kara-Khitan Khanate Main article: Kara-Khitan Khanate Location of Kara-Khitan Khanate Kuchlug , the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into the Mongol nation, fled west
and usurped the khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay ). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan
khanate and defeat Kuchlug , possibly to take him out of power. By this time the
Mongol army was exhausted from ten
years of continuous campaigning in China
against the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty . Therefore Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under
his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow". With such a small force, the invading
Mongols were forced to change strategies
and resort to inciting internal revolt
among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the
Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnerable to
Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar . Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted
down by Jebe's army and executed. By
1218, as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan
khanate, the Mongol Empire and its
control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash , which bordered the Khwarezmia (Khwarezmid Empire), a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south. Khwarezmian Empire Main article: Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia Khwarezmid Empire (1190– 1220) Genghis Khan watches in amazement as the Khwarezmi Jalal ad-Din prepares to ford the Indus. In the early 13th century, the Khwarezmian Dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad . Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in
Khwarezmia as a commercial trading
partner using the Silk Road , and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the
empire. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from
Mongolia, claiming that the caravan
contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The
situation became further complicated
because the governor later refused to
make repayments for the looting of the
caravan and handing over the
perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three
ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim)
to meet the Shah himself instead of the
governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two
remaining ambassadors. This was seen as
an affront and insult to Genghis Khan.
Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of
his largest invasion campaigns by
organizing together around 200,000 soldiers (20 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a
commander and number of troops in
China, designated his successors to be his
family members and likely appointed Ogedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarezmia. The Mongol army under Genghis Khan,
generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarezmian Empire . After compiling intelligence from many
sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared
his army, which was divided into three
groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The
second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of
Khwarzemia to form, with the first
division, a pincer attack on Samarkand . The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that
direction. The Shah's army was split by diverse
internal disquisitions and by the Shah's
decision to divide his army into small
groups concentrated in various cities. This
fragmentation was decisive in
Khwarezmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the
long journey, to immediately set about
defeating small fractions of the
Khwarzemi forces instead of facing a
unified defense. The Mongol army quickly
seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis
Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of
many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of
the population and executed Inalchuq by
pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near
the end of the battle the Shah fled rather
than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men.
The Shah died under mysterious
circumstances on a small island within his
empire. The Mongols' conquest, even by their own
standards, was brutal. After the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men, and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his
generals and their forces to completely
destroying the remnants of the
Khwarezmid Empire, including not only
royal buildings, but entire towns,
populations and even vast swaths of farmland. According to stories, Genghis
Khan even went so far as to divert a river
through the Khwarezmid emperor's
birthplace, erasing it from the map. The Mongols attacked Samarkand using prisoners as body shields. After several
days only a few remaining soldiers, die-
hard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis
supposedly reneged on his surrender
terms and executed every soldier that had
taken arms against him at Samarkand . The people of Samarkand were ordered
to evacuate and assemble in a plain
outside the city, where they were killed
and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory. [20] The city of Bukhara was not heavily
fortified, with a moat and a single wall,
and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi
cities. The city leaders opened the gates
to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish
defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the
citadel were executed, artisans and
craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia,
young men who had not fought were
drafted into the Mongolian army and the
rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the
city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.[21] Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in
the main mosque of the town, where he
declared that he was the flail of God, sent
to punish them for their sins. Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. The assault on
Urgench proved to be the most difficult
battle of the Mongol invasion and the city
fell only after the defenders put up a
stout defense, fighting block for block.
Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed
difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to
city fighting. As usual, the artisans were sent back to
Mongolia, young women and children
were given to the Mongol soldiers as
slaves, and the rest of the population was
massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were
given the task of executing twenty-four
Urgench citizens each, which would mean
that 1.2 million people were killed. While
this is almost certainly an exaggeration,
the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history . In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected
his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified
that subsequent Khans should be his
direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol
forces in Jin China while he was out
battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the
west. Georgia and Volga Bulgaria Main articles: Mongol invasions of Georgia and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria After the defeat of the Khwarezmian
Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered
his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the
suggestion of Subutai, the Mongol army was split into two component forces.
Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid
through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000
(two tumen) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan . The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade- fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea . Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied but poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in
the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force,
while losing the battle of Samara Bend against the neighboring Volga Bulgars. [22] The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was
customary in Mongol society for nobility,
the Russian princes were given a
bloodless death. Subutai had a large
wooden platform constructed on which he
ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev , were put under this platform and crushed to death. The Mongols learned from captives of the
abundant green pastures beyond the
Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning
for conquest of Hungary and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to
Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died
on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai
and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in
which they encircled the entire Caspian
Sea defeating all armies in their path, except for that of the Volga Bulgars,
remains unparalleled to this day, and
word of the Mongol triumphs began to
trickle to other nations, particularly
Europe. These two campaigns are
generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of
the political and cultural elements of the
regions. In 1225 both divisions returned
to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately
added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while
destroying any resistance along the way.
Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and
the Kievan Rus in 1237, concluding the
campaign in 1240. Western Xia and Jin Dynasty Main article: Mongol invasion of China Western Xia Dynasty, Jin Dynasty , Song Dynasty and Kingdom of Dali in 1142. The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia ) had earlier refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid
Empire after Genghis Khan and the main
army marched towards Kharezmian
Empire. Plus Western Xia and the
defeated Jin Dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the
campaign against the Khwarezmians to
drain the Mongols' ability to respond
effectively. In 1226, immediately after returning
from the west, Genghis Khan began a
retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu
province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang -fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan, but was soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River , defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here
that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line
of five stars arranged in the sky, and
interpreted it as an omen of his victory. In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked
and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning
Hia, and continued to advance, seizing
Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu -fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in
the Spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general
Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for
several days and personally led charges
against the invaders outside the city gate.
Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis
Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to
Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer.
The new Tangut emperor quickly
surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest
of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon
after. Not happy with their betrayal and
resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed,
effectively ending the Tangut lineage. Some accounts say that Genghis Khan was castrated by a Tangut princess using a hidden knife, who wanted revenge
against his treatment of the Tanguts and stop him from raping her. [23][24][25] After his castration, Genghis Khan died,
and the Tangut princess committed
suicide by drowning in the yellow river according to the legend.[26][27] In some mythical legends, it is claimed that
Genghis fell into a trance after being
castrated and is waiting to be sent back to the Mongol people.[28][29] Succession Genghis Khan and three of his four sons [citation needed]. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript The succession topic of Genghis Khan was
already significant during the later years
of Genghis Khan's reign since he was
already reaching his older years. Also the
long running paternity discussion about
Genghis' oldest son Jochi was already a relatively hot topic behind the scenes,
which particularly was contentious
because of the seniority of Jochi among
the brothers. According to traditional
historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's
paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and
brothers that he would never accept Jochi
as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension[30] and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was
appointed as successor. Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted at Balk, Afghanistan , AH 618, 1221 CE. Jochi Jochi died in 1226, during his father's
lifetime. Some scholars, notably
Ratchnevsky, have commented on the
possibility that Jochi was secretly
poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan.
Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223,
and while his brothers heeded the order,
Jochi remained in Khorasan . Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose
from a quarrel between Jochi and his
brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from
destruction, as it belonged to territory
allocated to him as a fief. He concludes
his story with the clearly apocryphal
statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad
to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be
doing a service if I killed my father when
he is hunting, made an alliance with
Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to
life and gave assistance and support to
the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that
Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly
poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad
was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.[31] Genghis Khan was aware of this friction
between his sons (particularly between
Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of
possible conflict between them if he died
and therefore he decided to explicitly
divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right
and by appointing one of his sons as his
successor. Chagatai was considered
unstable due to his temper and rash
behavior because of his statements he
made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son was definitely not to be his successor because
he was the youngest and in the Mongol
culture, youngest sons were not given a
huge responsibility due to their age. If
Jochi was to become successor, it was
likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the
empire. Therefore Genghis Khan decided
to give the throne to Ogedei. Ogedei was
seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in
character and relatively stable and down
to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between
his brothers. Death and burial Main article: Tomb of Genghis Khan Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death In 1227, after defeating the Tangut
people, Genghis Khan died (according to
The Secret History of the Mongols). The
reason for his death is uncertain and
speculations abound. Some historians
maintain that he fell off his horse during a horseback pursuit from the land of
present day Egypt due to battle wounds
and physical fatigue, ultimately dying of his injuries.[32] Others contend that he was felled by a protracted illness such as
pneumonia. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts in battle. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Tangut
princess taken as war booty. One
chronicle from the early 17th century even
relates that the princess hid a small pair
of pliers inside her vagina, and hurt the
Great Khan so badly that he died. Some Mongol authors have doubted this version
and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.[33] Genghis Khan asked to be buried without
markings, according to the customs of his
tribe. After he died, his body was
returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag , where many assume he is buried somewhere
close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend,
the funeral escort killed anyone and
anything across their path to conceal
where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum , constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not
his burial site. In 1939 Guomindang Chinese Nationalist soldiers took the mausoleum from its
position at the 'Lord's
Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in
Mongolia to protect it from Japanese
troops. It was taken through Communist-
held territory in Yan'an some 900 km on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery,
the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it
remained for ten years. In 1949, as
Communist troops advanced, the
Nationalist soldiers moved it another
200 km further west to the famous Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi near Xining , which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954,
Genghis Khan's bier and relics were
returned to the Lord's Enclosure in
Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them.[34] In 1968 during the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value. The
"relics" were remade in the 1970s and a
great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.[35] On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-
Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered
what is believed to be Genghis Khan's
palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the
possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.[36] Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to
make it impossible to find (the same
manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Atilla the Hun ). Other tales state that his grave was
stampeded over by many horses, and that
trees were then planted over the site, and
the permafrost also did its part in hiding
the burial site. Genghis Khan left behind an army of more
than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to
his various brothers and his sons. Tolui,
his youngest son, inherited more than
100,000 men. This force contained the
bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry . By tradition, the youngest son inherits his
father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan , and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother
and the descendants of his three brothers
received 3,000 men each. Mongol Empire Main article: Mongol Empire Politics and economics Mongol Empire Main article: Organization of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code, called the Yassa , created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the
importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting
an approach grounded in meritocracy . The exception was the role of Genghis Khan
and his family. The Mongol Empire was
one of the most ethnically and culturally
diverse empires in history, as befitted its
size. Many of the empire's nomadic
inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life,
including Turks , Mongols, and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire
such as Muhammad Khan . There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held
that religion was a very personal concept,
and not subject to law or interference. [citation needed] Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong
Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had
converted to Nestorian Christianity . Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist,
Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious
tolerance was thus a well established
concept on the Asian steppe. Modern Mongolian historians say that
towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan
attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have
established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.[37] However, there is no contemporary
evidence of this, or of the lifting of
discriminatory policies towards sedentary
peoples such as the Chinese. Women
played a relatively important role in
Mongol Empire and in family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of
encouraging trade and communication as
the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace). Genghis Khan realised that he needed
people who could govern cities and states
conquered by him. He also realised that
such administrators could not be found
among his Mongol people because they
were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis
Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been
captured by the Mongol army after the Jin
Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured
power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told
Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of
Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded
that his father served the Jin Dynasty
honestly and so did he; he did not
consider his own father his enemy, so the
question of revenge did not apply.
Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the
Mongol Empire and became a confidant of
the successive Mongol Khans. Military Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization Reenactment of Mongol military movement. Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his
generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same
privileges and trust normally reserved for
close family members. He allowed them
to make decisions on their own when
they embarked on campaigns far from
the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum . Genghis Khan expected unwavering
loyalty from his generals, and granted
them a great deal of autonomy in making
command decisions. Muqali, a trusted
general, was given command of the
Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia , and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the
Caucausus and Kievan Rus , an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their
own initiative. The Mongol military was
also successful in siege warfare , cutting off resources for cities and towns by
diverting certain rivers, taking enemy
prisoners and driving them in front of the
army, and adopting new ideas,
techniques and tools from the people they
conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and
engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in
capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly
practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy
groups away from the larger group and
defended position for ambush and counterattack. Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam , adapted from previous Chinese models.
Genghis Khan dedicated special attention
to this in order to speed up the gathering
of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam
waystations were established all over the
empire. [38] The followers of Temujin consisted of several Christians, three Muslims, and
several Buddhists. They were united only
in their devotion to Temujin and their
oath to him and each other. The oaths
sworn at Baljuna created a type of
brotherhood, and in transcending kinship, ethnicity, and religion, it came close to
being a type of modern civic citizenship
based upon personal choice and
commitment. This connection became a
metaphor for the new type of community
among Temujin's followers that would eventually dominate as the basis of unity
within the Mongol Empire. Khanates Before his death, Genghis Khan divided
his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan
meant that his lands were instead split
between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-
territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan , who was, initially, Ögedei. Modern day location of capital Kharakhorum Following are the Khanates the way Genghis Khan assigned them: Empire of the Great Khan: Ögedei Khan , as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia , including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan . Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum ): Tolui Khan , being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol
homeland, following Mongol custom. Chagatai Khanate: Chagatai Khan , Genghis Khan's second son, was given
Central Asia and northern Iran. Blue Horde to Batu Khan , and White Horde to Orda Khan , both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate , or Khanate of the Golden Horde , under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was
further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned
back by the news of Ögedei's death. After Genghis Khan Genghis Khan's son and successor, Ögedei Khaghan Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan
did not conquer all of the areas of the
Mongol Empire. At the time of his death,
the Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan . The empire's expansion continued for a
generation or more after Genghis's death
in 1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia,
finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants
of the Khwarezmids, and came into
conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until
1279 and that would conclude with the
Mongols gaining control of all of China.
They also pushed further into Russia and
eastern Europe. Perceptions Like other notable conquerors, Genghis
Khan is portrayed differently by those he
conquered and those who conquered with
him. Negative views of Genghis Khan are
very persistent within histories written by
many different cultures, from various different geographical regions. They
often cite the cruelties and destruction
brought upon by Mongol armies, not to
mention the systematic slaughter of
civilians in the conquered regions; other
authors cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests as well. Positive Genghis Khan on the reverse of a Kazakhstan 100 Tenge coin Genghis Khan is credited with bringing
the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three
cultural areas. Some historians have
noted that Genghis Khan instituted
(birth name: Borjigin Temüjin) Mongolian script ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ. Titles Khan , Khagan Temple name: Taizu (太祖) Posthumous name: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu
(法天啟運聖武皇帝) Born c. 1162 Birthplace Khentii Mountains , Mongolia Died 1227 (aged 65) Successor Ögedei Khan Consort Börte Ujin
Khulan
Yisugen
Yisui others Offspring Jochi
Chagatai
Ögedei
Tolui others Royal
House Borjigin Father Yesükhei Mother Ho'elun Genghis Khan (pronounced /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn / or /ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn /;[2] Mongolian: Чингис Хаан or ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ, Chinggis Khaan, or Činggis Qaγan, aka Chengiz Khan), IPA: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ]( listen); probably [3] 1162– 1227), born Borjigin Temüjin pronunciation (help·info ), was the founder, Khan (ruler) and Khagan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia . After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started
the Mongol invasions that would ultimately result in the conquest of most
of Eurasia. These included raids or
invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate , Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire , Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale
massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia . By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a
substantial portion of Central Asia and China. Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.[4] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried
in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His
descendants went on to stretch the
Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering and/or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea , the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-
scale slaughter of local populations, which
have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories. [5] It has been estimated that his campaigns
killed as many as 40 million people based on census data of the times. [6] Beyond his great military
accomplishments, Genghis Khan also
advanced the Mongol Empire in other
ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted
religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire,
and created a unified empire from the
nomadic tribes of northeast Asia.
Present-day Mongolians regard him highly as the founding father of Mongolia.[7] Early life Lineage Main article: Family tree of Genghis Khan Temüjin was related on his father's side
to Khabul Khan , Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation . When the Chinese Jin Dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan. [8] Genghis's father, Yesügei (leader of the Borjigin and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula
Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling
clan of the Mongols, but this position was
contested by the rival Tayichi’ ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai . When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161,
the Jin switched their support from the
Tatars to the Keraits . Birth The Onon River, Mongolia in autumn, a region where Borjigin Temüjin was born and grew up. Because of the lack of contemporary
written records, there is very little factual
information about the early life of
Temüjin. The few sources that provide
insight into this period often conflict. Temüjin was born in 1162[3] in a Mongol tribe near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern- day Mongolia, not far from the current capital Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist,
a traditional sign that he was destined to
become a great leader. He was the third-
oldest son of his father Yesükhei , a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe,[9] and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun. According to the Secret History, Temüjin was named
after a Tatar chieftain whom his father had just captured. The name also
suggests that they may have been
descended from a family of blacksmiths
(see section Name and title below). Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut , the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe.[10][11] Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors,
Temüjin was of a noble background. This
higher social standing made it easier to
solicit help from and eventually
consolidate the other Mongol tribes.[citation needed] No accurate portraits of Genghis exist
today, and any surviving depictions are
considered to be artistic interpretations.
Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall,
long-bearded, red-haired, and green-
eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the
first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan , when Genghis was shocked to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair. [12] Also according to al-Din Genghis's Borjigid
clan, had a legend involving their origins:
it began as the result of an affair
between Alan-ko and a stranger to her
land, a glittering man who happened to
have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has
suggested in his Genghis biography that
the "glittering man" may have been from
the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics.
Controversies aside, the closest depiction
generally accepted by most historians is
the portrait currently in the National
Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan (see picture above).[citation needed] Early life and family Temüjin had three brothers named
Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen (or
Temülin), as well as two half-brothers
named Bekhter and Belgutei. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temüjin's
early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years old, he was delivered by his father
to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei
Sechen, the head of the new household,
until he reached the marriageable age of 12. While heading home, his father ran
into the neighbouring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he
was subsequently poisoned by the food
they offered. Upon learning this, Temüjin
returned home to claim his father's
position as chieftain of the tribe;
however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection. Genghis Khan and Ong Khan . Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript For the next several years, Hoelun and her
children lived in poverty, surviving
primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temüjin and his brothers. It was during
one hunting excursion that 10-year-old
Temüjin killed his half-brother, Bekhter , during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.[13] This incident cemented his position as a
prisoner for manslaughter. In another
incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid
and held prisoner by his father's former
allies, the Tayichi'ud. The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temüjin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic watcher, the father of Chilaun (who would later become a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to
escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.[citation needed] It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined
forces with him. Temüjin's reputation
also became widespread after his escape
from the Tayichi'ud. At this time, none of the tribal
confederations of Mongolia were united
politically, and arranged marriages were
often used to solidify temporary alliances.
Temujin grew up observing the tough
political climate of Mongolia, which includes tribal warfare, thievery, raids,
corruption and continuing acts of revenge
carried out between the various
confederations, all compounded by
interference from foreign forces such as
the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temüjin's mother Hoelun taught him
many lessons about the unstable political
climate of Mongolia, especially the need
for alliances. As previously arranged by his father,
Temüjin married Börte of the Olkut'hun tribe when he was around 16 in order to
cement alliances between their
respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185– 1226), Chagatai (1187— 1241), Ögedei (1189— 1241), and Tolui (1190– 1232). Genghis Khan also had many other
children with his other wives, but they
were excluded from the succession, and
records of daughters are nonexistent.
Soon after Börte's marriage to Temüjin,
she was kidnapped by the Merkits , and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin
rescued her with the help of his friend
and future rival, Jamuka , and his protector, Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his
parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi,
Börte would be his only empress, though
Temüjin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.[14] Temujin valued loyalty above all else and also valued brotherhood.[15] Jumuka was one of Temujin's best friends growing up.
But their friendship would be tested later
in life, when Temujin was fighting to
become a khan. Jumuka said this to
Temujin before he was killed, "What use
is there in my becoming a companion to you? On the contrary, sworn brother, in
the black night I would haunt your
dreams, in the bright day I would trouble
your heart. I would be the louse in your
collar, I would become the splinter in your
door-panel...as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord." [16] Religion Genghis Khan's religion is widely
speculated to be Shamanism or Tengriism, which was very likely among nomadic Mongol-Turkic tribes of Central Asia. But he was very tolerant religiously,
and interested in learning philosophical
and moral lessons from other religions. To
do so, he consulted Buddhist monks, Christian missionaries, Muslim merchants, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji. Uniting the confederations Asia in 1200 AD The Central Asian plateau (north of China) around the time of Temüjin (the early
13th century) was divided into several
tribes or confederations , among them Naimans, Merkits , Uyghurs, Tatars, Mongols, and Keraits , that were all prominent in their own right and often
unfriendly toward each other as
evidenced by random raids, revenges, and
plundering. Temüjin began his slow ascent to power
by offering himself as an ally (or,
according to others sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Kerait , and is better known by the Chinese title Ong Khan (or " Wang Khan "), which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This relationship was first
reinforced when Börte was captured by
the Merkits; it was Toghrul to whom
Temüjin turned for support. In response,
Toghrul offered his vassal 20,000 of his
Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamuka,
who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.[17] Although the campaign was successful and led to
the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of
the Merkits, it also paved the way for the
split between the childhood friends,
Temüjin and Jamuka. Temüjin had
become blood brother (anda) with Jamuka earlier, and they had vowed to remain eternally faithful. The main opponents of the Mongol
confederation (traditionally the
"Mongols") around 1200 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, and the Jin and Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin, his followers, and their advisors, had
united the smaller Mongol confederation
only. In his rule and his conquest of rival
tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol
tradition in a few crucial ways. He
delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an
incentive for absolute obedience and
following his rule of law, the Yassa code, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers
wealth from future possible war spoils. As
he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive
away enemy soldiers and abandon the
rest. Instead, he took the conquered tribe
under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would
even have his mother adopt orphans from
the conquered tribe, bringing them into
his family. These political innovations
inspired great loyalty among the
conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory.[18] Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son Senggum was
jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and
his affinity with his father. He allegedly
planned to assassinate Temüjin. Toghrul,
though allegedly saved on multiple
occasions by Temüjin, gave in to his son [19] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's
intentions and eventually defeated him
and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures
between Toghrul and Temüjin was
Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in
marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the
Mongolian culture. This act led to the split
between both factions, and was a prelude
to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka , who already opposed Temüjin's forces; however the internal dispute
between Toghrul and Jamuka, plus the
desertion of a number of their allies to
Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuka
escaped during the conflict. This defeat
was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe. Genghis Khan in traditional
Mongolian
writing The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamuka and his followers took refuge . The Naimans did not surrender, although
enough sectors again voluntarily sided
with Temüjin. In 1201, a kurultai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan , "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate . Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin,
and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes
to oppose him. Before the conflict,
however, several generals abandoned
Jamuka, including Subutai, Jelme's well- known younger brother. After several
battles, Jamuka was finally turned over to
Temüjin by his own men in 1206. According to the Secret History, Temüjin
again offered his friendship to Jamuka,
asking him to return to his side. Temüjin
had killed the men who betrayed Jamuka,
stating that he did not want disloyal men
in his army. Jamuka refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there
can only be one Sun in the sky, and he
asked for a noble death. The custom is to
die without spilling blood, which is
granted by breaking the back. Jamuka
requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamuka had been
known to have boiled his opponent's
generals alive. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, who is now a member of Temüjin's personal guard and
would later become one of the successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the
sole ruler of the Mongol plains, which
means all the prominent confederations
fell and/or united under Temüjin's Mongol
confederation. Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are
marked by claims of a series of betrayals
and conspiracies. These include rifts with
his early allies such as Jamuka (who also
wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and
Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most
important Shaman who was allegedly trying to break him up with brother Qasar
who was serving Genghis Khan loyally. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy
network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting
new technologies and ideas that he
encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed
to unite or subdue the Merkits , Naimans, Mongols, Keraits , Tatars, Uyghurs and disparate other smaller tribes under his
rule. It was a monumental feat for the
"Mongols" (as they became known
collectively). At a Kurultai , a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as
"Khan " of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his
son and successor, Ögedei took the title
for himself and extended it posthumously
to his father (as he was also to be
posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan
established peace between previously
warring tribes and a single political and
military force under Genghis Khan. Military campaigns All significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals during his lifetime Western Xia Dynasty During the 1206 political rise of Genghis
Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its
western borders with the Tanguts' Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin Dynasty , founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlord of the Mongolian tribes for
centuries. Genghis Khan organized his people, army,
and his state to first prepare for war with
Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer
to the Mongolian lands. He correctly
believed that the more powerful Jin
Dynasty's young ruler would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts
requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were flatly refused. [19] Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended
cities, Genghis Khan forced the surrender
of Western Xia by 1209. Jin Dynasty Main article: Mongol-Jin War In 1211, after the conquest of Western
Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to
conquer the Jin Dynasty . The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical
mistake in not attacking the Mongols at
the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin
commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan,
to the Mongol side, who promptly
defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the
pass. At this engagement fought at
Badger Pass the Mongols massacred
thousands of Jin troops. In 1215 Genghis
besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin
capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng , abandoning the northern half of his kingdom to the Mongols. Kara-Khitan Khanate Main article: Kara-Khitan Khanate Location of Kara-Khitan Khanate Kuchlug , the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into the Mongol nation, fled west
and usurped the khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay ). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan
khanate and defeat Kuchlug , possibly to take him out of power. By this time the
Mongol army was exhausted from ten
years of continuous campaigning in China
against the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty . Therefore Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under
his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow". With such a small force, the invading
Mongols were forced to change strategies
and resort to inciting internal revolt
among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the
Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnerable to
Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar . Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted
down by Jebe's army and executed. By
1218, as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan
khanate, the Mongol Empire and its
control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash , which bordered the Khwarezmia (Khwarezmid Empire), a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south. Khwarezmian Empire Main article: Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia Khwarezmid Empire (1190– 1220) Genghis Khan watches in amazement as the Khwarezmi Jalal ad-Din prepares to ford the Indus. In the early 13th century, the Khwarezmian Dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad . Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in
Khwarezmia as a commercial trading
partner using the Silk Road , and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the
empire. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from
Mongolia, claiming that the caravan
contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The
situation became further complicated
because the governor later refused to
make repayments for the looting of the
caravan and handing over the
perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three
ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim)
to meet the Shah himself instead of the
governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two
remaining ambassadors. This was seen as
an affront and insult to Genghis Khan.
Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of
his largest invasion campaigns by
organizing together around 200,000 soldiers (20 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a
commander and number of troops in
China, designated his successors to be his
family members and likely appointed Ogedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarezmia. The Mongol army under Genghis Khan,
generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarezmian Empire . After compiling intelligence from many
sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared
his army, which was divided into three
groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The
second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of
Khwarzemia to form, with the first
division, a pincer attack on Samarkand . The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that
direction. The Shah's army was split by diverse
internal disquisitions and by the Shah's
decision to divide his army into small
groups concentrated in various cities. This
fragmentation was decisive in
Khwarezmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the
long journey, to immediately set about
defeating small fractions of the
Khwarzemi forces instead of facing a
unified defense. The Mongol army quickly
seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis
Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of
many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of
the population and executed Inalchuq by
pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near
the end of the battle the Shah fled rather
than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men.
The Shah died under mysterious
circumstances on a small island within his
empire. The Mongols' conquest, even by their own
standards, was brutal. After the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men, and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his
generals and their forces to completely
destroying the remnants of the
Khwarezmid Empire, including not only
royal buildings, but entire towns,
populations and even vast swaths of farmland. According to stories, Genghis
Khan even went so far as to divert a river
through the Khwarezmid emperor's
birthplace, erasing it from the map. The Mongols attacked Samarkand using prisoners as body shields. After several
days only a few remaining soldiers, die-
hard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis
supposedly reneged on his surrender
terms and executed every soldier that had
taken arms against him at Samarkand . The people of Samarkand were ordered
to evacuate and assemble in a plain
outside the city, where they were killed
and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory. [20] The city of Bukhara was not heavily
fortified, with a moat and a single wall,
and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi
cities. The city leaders opened the gates
to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish
defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the
citadel were executed, artisans and
craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia,
young men who had not fought were
drafted into the Mongolian army and the
rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the
city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.[21] Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in
the main mosque of the town, where he
declared that he was the flail of God, sent
to punish them for their sins. Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. The assault on
Urgench proved to be the most difficult
battle of the Mongol invasion and the city
fell only after the defenders put up a
stout defense, fighting block for block.
Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed
difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to
city fighting. As usual, the artisans were sent back to
Mongolia, young women and children
were given to the Mongol soldiers as
slaves, and the rest of the population was
massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were
given the task of executing twenty-four
Urgench citizens each, which would mean
that 1.2 million people were killed. While
this is almost certainly an exaggeration,
the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history . In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected
his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified
that subsequent Khans should be his
direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol
forces in Jin China while he was out
battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the
west. Georgia and Volga Bulgaria Main articles: Mongol invasions of Georgia and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria After the defeat of the Khwarezmian
Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered
his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the
suggestion of Subutai, the Mongol army was split into two component forces.
Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid
through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000
(two tumen) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan . The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade- fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea . Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied but poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in
the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force,
while losing the battle of Samara Bend against the neighboring Volga Bulgars. [22] The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was
customary in Mongol society for nobility,
the Russian princes were given a
bloodless death. Subutai had a large
wooden platform constructed on which he
ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev , were put under this platform and crushed to death. The Mongols learned from captives of the
abundant green pastures beyond the
Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning
for conquest of Hungary and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to
Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died
on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai
and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in
which they encircled the entire Caspian
Sea defeating all armies in their path, except for that of the Volga Bulgars,
remains unparalleled to this day, and
word of the Mongol triumphs began to
trickle to other nations, particularly
Europe. These two campaigns are
generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of
the political and cultural elements of the
regions. In 1225 both divisions returned
to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately
added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while
destroying any resistance along the way.
Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and
the Kievan Rus in 1237, concluding the
campaign in 1240. Western Xia and Jin Dynasty Main article: Mongol invasion of China Western Xia Dynasty, Jin Dynasty , Song Dynasty and Kingdom of Dali in 1142. The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia ) had earlier refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid
Empire after Genghis Khan and the main
army marched towards Kharezmian
Empire. Plus Western Xia and the
defeated Jin Dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the
campaign against the Khwarezmians to
drain the Mongols' ability to respond
effectively. In 1226, immediately after returning
from the west, Genghis Khan began a
retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu
province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang -fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan, but was soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River , defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here
that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line
of five stars arranged in the sky, and
interpreted it as an omen of his victory. In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked
and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning
Hia, and continued to advance, seizing
Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu -fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in
the Spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general
Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for
several days and personally led charges
against the invaders outside the city gate.
Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis
Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to
Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer.
The new Tangut emperor quickly
surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest
of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon
after. Not happy with their betrayal and
resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed,
effectively ending the Tangut lineage. Some accounts say that Genghis Khan was castrated by a Tangut princess using a hidden knife, who wanted revenge
against his treatment of the Tanguts and stop him from raping her. [23][24][25] After his castration, Genghis Khan died,
and the Tangut princess committed
suicide by drowning in the yellow river according to the legend.[26][27] In some mythical legends, it is claimed that
Genghis fell into a trance after being
castrated and is waiting to be sent back to the Mongol people.[28][29] Succession Genghis Khan and three of his four sons [citation needed]. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript The succession topic of Genghis Khan was
already significant during the later years
of Genghis Khan's reign since he was
already reaching his older years. Also the
long running paternity discussion about
Genghis' oldest son Jochi was already a relatively hot topic behind the scenes,
which particularly was contentious
because of the seniority of Jochi among
the brothers. According to traditional
historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's
paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and
brothers that he would never accept Jochi
as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension[30] and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was
appointed as successor. Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted at Balk, Afghanistan , AH 618, 1221 CE. Jochi Jochi died in 1226, during his father's
lifetime. Some scholars, notably
Ratchnevsky, have commented on the
possibility that Jochi was secretly
poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan.
Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223,
and while his brothers heeded the order,
Jochi remained in Khorasan . Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose
from a quarrel between Jochi and his
brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from
destruction, as it belonged to territory
allocated to him as a fief. He concludes
his story with the clearly apocryphal
statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad
to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be
doing a service if I killed my father when
he is hunting, made an alliance with
Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to
life and gave assistance and support to
the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that
Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly
poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad
was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.[31] Genghis Khan was aware of this friction
between his sons (particularly between
Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of
possible conflict between them if he died
and therefore he decided to explicitly
divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right
and by appointing one of his sons as his
successor. Chagatai was considered
unstable due to his temper and rash
behavior because of his statements he
made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son was definitely not to be his successor because
he was the youngest and in the Mongol
culture, youngest sons were not given a
huge responsibility due to their age. If
Jochi was to become successor, it was
likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the
empire. Therefore Genghis Khan decided
to give the throne to Ogedei. Ogedei was
seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in
character and relatively stable and down
to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between
his brothers. Death and burial Main article: Tomb of Genghis Khan Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death In 1227, after defeating the Tangut
people, Genghis Khan died (according to
The Secret History of the Mongols). The
reason for his death is uncertain and
speculations abound. Some historians
maintain that he fell off his horse during a horseback pursuit from the land of
present day Egypt due to battle wounds
and physical fatigue, ultimately dying of his injuries.[32] Others contend that he was felled by a protracted illness such as
pneumonia. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts in battle. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Tangut
princess taken as war booty. One
chronicle from the early 17th century even
relates that the princess hid a small pair
of pliers inside her vagina, and hurt the
Great Khan so badly that he died. Some Mongol authors have doubted this version
and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.[33] Genghis Khan asked to be buried without
markings, according to the customs of his
tribe. After he died, his body was
returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag , where many assume he is buried somewhere
close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend,
the funeral escort killed anyone and
anything across their path to conceal
where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum , constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not
his burial site. In 1939 Guomindang Chinese Nationalist soldiers took the mausoleum from its
position at the 'Lord's
Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in
Mongolia to protect it from Japanese
troops. It was taken through Communist-
held territory in Yan'an some 900 km on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery,
the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it
remained for ten years. In 1949, as
Communist troops advanced, the
Nationalist soldiers moved it another
200 km further west to the famous Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi near Xining , which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954,
Genghis Khan's bier and relics were
returned to the Lord's Enclosure in
Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them.[34] In 1968 during the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value. The
"relics" were remade in the 1970s and a
great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.[35] On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-
Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered
what is believed to be Genghis Khan's
palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the
possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.[36] Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to
make it impossible to find (the same
manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Atilla the Hun ). Other tales state that his grave was
stampeded over by many horses, and that
trees were then planted over the site, and
the permafrost also did its part in hiding
the burial site. Genghis Khan left behind an army of more
than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to
his various brothers and his sons. Tolui,
his youngest son, inherited more than
100,000 men. This force contained the
bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry . By tradition, the youngest son inherits his
father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan , and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother
and the descendants of his three brothers
received 3,000 men each. Mongol Empire Main article: Mongol Empire Politics and economics Mongol Empire Main article: Organization of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code, called the Yassa , created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the
importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting
an approach grounded in meritocracy . The exception was the role of Genghis Khan
and his family. The Mongol Empire was
one of the most ethnically and culturally
diverse empires in history, as befitted its
size. Many of the empire's nomadic
inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life,
including Turks , Mongols, and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire
such as Muhammad Khan . There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held
that religion was a very personal concept,
and not subject to law or interference. [citation needed] Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong
Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had
converted to Nestorian Christianity . Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist,
Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious
tolerance was thus a well established
concept on the Asian steppe. Modern Mongolian historians say that
towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan
attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have
established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.[37] However, there is no contemporary
evidence of this, or of the lifting of
discriminatory policies towards sedentary
peoples such as the Chinese. Women
played a relatively important role in
Mongol Empire and in family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of
encouraging trade and communication as
the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace). Genghis Khan realised that he needed
people who could govern cities and states
conquered by him. He also realised that
such administrators could not be found
among his Mongol people because they
were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis
Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been
captured by the Mongol army after the Jin
Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured
power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told
Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of
Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded
that his father served the Jin Dynasty
honestly and so did he; he did not
consider his own father his enemy, so the
question of revenge did not apply.
Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the
Mongol Empire and became a confidant of
the successive Mongol Khans. Military Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization Reenactment of Mongol military movement. Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his
generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same
privileges and trust normally reserved for
close family members. He allowed them
to make decisions on their own when
they embarked on campaigns far from
the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum . Genghis Khan expected unwavering
loyalty from his generals, and granted
them a great deal of autonomy in making
command decisions. Muqali, a trusted
general, was given command of the
Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia , and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the
Caucausus and Kievan Rus , an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their
own initiative. The Mongol military was
also successful in siege warfare , cutting off resources for cities and towns by
diverting certain rivers, taking enemy
prisoners and driving them in front of the
army, and adopting new ideas,
techniques and tools from the people they
conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and
engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in
capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly
practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy
groups away from the larger group and
defended position for ambush and counterattack. Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam , adapted from previous Chinese models.
Genghis Khan dedicated special attention
to this in order to speed up the gathering
of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam
waystations were established all over the
empire. [38] The followers of Temujin consisted of several Christians, three Muslims, and
several Buddhists. They were united only
in their devotion to Temujin and their
oath to him and each other. The oaths
sworn at Baljuna created a type of
brotherhood, and in transcending kinship, ethnicity, and religion, it came close to
being a type of modern civic citizenship
based upon personal choice and
commitment. This connection became a
metaphor for the new type of community
among Temujin's followers that would eventually dominate as the basis of unity
within the Mongol Empire. Khanates Before his death, Genghis Khan divided
his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan
meant that his lands were instead split
between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-
territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan , who was, initially, Ögedei. Modern day location of capital Kharakhorum Following are the Khanates the way Genghis Khan assigned them: Empire of the Great Khan: Ögedei Khan , as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia , including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan . Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum ): Tolui Khan , being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol
homeland, following Mongol custom. Chagatai Khanate: Chagatai Khan , Genghis Khan's second son, was given
Central Asia and northern Iran. Blue Horde to Batu Khan , and White Horde to Orda Khan , both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate , or Khanate of the Golden Horde , under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was
further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned
back by the news of Ögedei's death. After Genghis Khan Genghis Khan's son and successor, Ögedei Khaghan Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan
did not conquer all of the areas of the
Mongol Empire. At the time of his death,
the Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan . The empire's expansion continued for a
generation or more after Genghis's death
in 1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia,
finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants
of the Khwarezmids, and came into
conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until
1279 and that would conclude with the
Mongols gaining control of all of China.
They also pushed further into Russia and
eastern Europe. Perceptions Like other notable conquerors, Genghis
Khan is portrayed differently by those he
conquered and those who conquered with
him. Negative views of Genghis Khan are
very persistent within histories written by
many different cultures, from various different geographical regions. They
often cite the cruelties and destruction
brought upon by Mongol armies, not to
mention the systematic slaughter of
civilians in the conquered regions; other
authors cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests as well. Positive Genghis Khan on the reverse of a Kazakhstan 100 Tenge coin Genghis Khan is credited with bringing
the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three
cultural areas. Some historians have
noted that Genghis Khan instituted
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